Archnet is an Open Access resource, provided to the public to facilitate cultural understanding and excellence in both scholarship and practice. Content from Archnet.org may not be published, displayed, or appropriated for commercial use without the expressed written permission of the copyright holder. Unless otherwise noted, Archnet material is available for instructional, nonprofit use, and personal use on the terms of a <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International</a> (CC BY-NC 4.0) license. Please contact Archnet to request permission to use the Archnet.org website and its contents beyond the scope outlined above. High-resolution images may be available by contacting us using <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>. The content available on Archnet, including but not limited to information, text, graphics, logos, and multimedia related to the the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/authorities/1903" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Trust for Culture’</a>s programmes, such as the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/54" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Historic Cities Programme</a>, the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/848" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Award for Architecture</a> and the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/132" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Music Programme</a>, may be protected by copyright, trademark, or other intellectual property rights and laws, whether owned by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, its affiliates, or third parties. Unauthorized use, reproduction, distribution, modification, or display of this content is strictly prohibited without the express written permission of the respective copyright or trademark holder. Violation of this prohibition may result in legal penalties.

Terms of use

Archnet is a community powered resource that provides ready access to visual and textual material to facilitate teaching, scholarship, and professional work of high quality.&nbsp;This unparalleled resource continues to grow with both the addition of historic archives and documentation on contemporary trends shaping the built environment today.&nbsp;To better serve you, our user, in the study of art and architecture of Muslim societies, we continue to build our vast collection of sites, publications, images, and videos. We invite your involvement, particularly in the areas below:<ul><li>To ensure a high level of scholarly content and accuracy in the information provided, we appreciate your expert feedback and, more importantly, your contributions.&nbsp;&nbsp;</li><li>Please send comments, corrections, commendations, and other feedback to <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>If you find sites on Archnet to which you can contribute in compelling and meaningful ways, your generosity is most welcome. If you would be interested in contributing research, publications or other media to Archnet, please contact us using <a href="about:blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet-submission@mit.edu</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>We welcome the donation of select archives based on our current editorial policies and priorities.&nbsp;If you have a collection you would like to bring to the attention of Archnet's editors, please send an email to: <a href="http://mailto: archnet-submission@mit.edu/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet-submission@mit.edu</a>.</li><li>Occasionally, Archnet editors issue calls for contributions on specific themes or of particular types of material. Follow those on the <a href="https://libraries.mit.edu/akdc/category/contributors/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">website of AKDC@MIT </a>or <a href="https://mailchi.mp/17fc345bbd94/archnetakdc-updates" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">subscribe to our mailing list</a>.</li></ul>The breadth, depth and quality of Archnet is only possible through the generosity of numerous institutions and individuals listed on the respective pages throughout the site.&nbsp;We thank you for your generosity!

Contribute

<h2>ARCHNET FAQ</h2>1. Will ARCHNET work on my device?Archnet works well on the most recent version of any major browser (Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge), either on a mobile device or computer. It may work on older or less common browsers as well. If Archnet fails to work properly on your machine, please let us know about your experience by clicking the blue feedback button at bottom right!2. Will my URLs from earlier versions of Archnet still work?Yes, if they are from the version launched in January 2013. As of October 12, 2021, all URLs from the old Archnet have been redirected to ARCHNET.&nbsp;&nbsp;3. How do I download a/n:&nbsp;<ul><li>image - Select the image you want to download from search results, a site or an authority. The image will open in your browser.&nbsp;Right click to download.&nbsp;For larger, high-resolution copies, see contact us using archnet@mit.edu.&nbsp;</li><li>publication - Open the page for the publication in your browser and click the download button. Reprinting Archnet publications is permissible only for personal use.&nbsp;Please contact us for any other requests.&nbsp;</li><li>site descriptions and metadata - Site descriptions and metadata can be used for any nonprofit or educational organization with appropriate attribution to the authors and Archnet.&nbsp;</li><li>video - Currently video downloads are not possible. If you'd like to use an Archnet video, please contact <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</li></ul>See our <a href="https://www.archnet.org/pages/terms" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Terms of Use</a> for information on how you can use Archnnet material.4. Can I contribute material to Archnet?&nbsp;Yes!&nbsp;See our <a href="https://www.archnet.org/pages/contribute" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Contribute</a> page for more information.&nbsp;Calls for specific contributions are also also shared in our social media and on the <a href="https://libraries.mit.edu/akdc/category/contributors/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">web site of the Aga Khan Documentation Center at MIT</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;5. What happened to the Archnet Timeline?&nbsp;Timeline has migrated into the ARCHNET NEXT Collections page&nbsp;<a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/collection_type/3/1" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">as a category</a>. These collections provide short introductions for each period, often offering lists of additional resources at the end of the entry. Only the timeline graphic listing the periods along a chronological axis has not migrated.6. My question isn't here.&nbsp;How can I get help?&nbsp;If your issue is with using Archnet, use the blue Feedback button to alert us to your issue. This will allow you to include a screenshot or recording. Please, also, feel free to contact us at <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>We are currently developing the help section of ARCHNET NEXT. In the meantime, please use the blue Feedback button in ARCHNET NEXT to send us feedback or other questions. Contact us at <a href="mailto:archnet@mit.edu" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">archnet@mit.edu</a>.&nbsp;

Need help?

Welcome to ARCHNET, an Open Access, intellectual resource focused on the built environment of Muslim societies.Our mission:&nbsp;<ul><li>Facilitate excellence in scholarship, and professional work by providing ready access to quality, unique texts, and media focused on architecture, urbanism, environmental and landscape design, conservation issues, visual and material cultures, and related topics, both historically and in terms of contemporary best practices.</li><li>Enable teaching and learning in these domains by providing educators with reliable, effective pedagogical material and teaching aids.&nbsp;</li><li>Serve serves as a platform through which scholars, practitioners, and institutions can bring their work to new global audiences.&nbsp;</li><li>Promote intercultural understanding and dialogue through reliable, high-quality, peer-reviewed material on the diversity of, and pluralism within Muslim societies and the interaction between Islamic and other religious, cultural, and philosophical traditions.</li><li>Enable easy access to a wide variety of resources via a custom-built, web-based, mobile-friendly platform optimized to minimize financial, infrastructural, linguistic, and other barriers to access.&nbsp;&nbsp;</li></ul>Launched in 2002 after several years of development, ARCHNET is a pioneering digital resource that has proven a reliable authority on the built environment of Muslim societies, past, and present.&nbsp;ARCHNET is a partnership between the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/1342" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Documentation Center, MIT Libraries </a>(AKDC@MIT) and the <a href="https://www.archnet.org/authorities/1903" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Aga Khan Trust for Culture</a> (AKTC), with support from the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard and MIT. ARCHNET NEXT was developed by <a href="https://www.performantsoftware.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Performant Software Solutions</a>.

About

Bahram Shah, Ghaznavid Sultan 

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/892fbdba-03f7-48b9-9df2-462dc3b66a34/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/892fbdba-03f7-48b9-9df2-462dc3b66a34/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/892fbdba-03f7-48b9-9df2-462dc3b66a34/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/892fbdba-03f7-48b9-9df2-462dc3b66a34/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/892fbdba-03f7-48b9-9df2-462dc3b66a34/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/892fbdba-03f7-48b9-9df2-462dc3b66a34/content

digital graphic

Coin_of_the_Ghaznavid_ruler_Bahram-Shah,_Kabul_mint.jpeg

patron

 Ghazni

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/72bbc216-443c-4ba9-b1b4-98996b3a8600/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/72bbc216-443c-4ba9-b1b4-98996b3a8600/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/72bbc216-443c-4ba9-b1b4-98996b3a8600/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/72bbc216-443c-4ba9-b1b4-98996b3a8600/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/72bbc216-443c-4ba9-b1b4-98996b3a8600/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/72bbc216-443c-4ba9-b1b4-98996b3a8600/content

AN101017.jpg

place

minaret

Timeline: Ghaznavid {977-1186}

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/df20bacb-1802-4391-aed1-d46766ead617/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/df20bacb-1802-4391-aed1-d46766ead617/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/df20bacb-1802-4391-aed1-d46766ead617/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/df20bacb-1802-4391-aed1-d46766ead617/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/df20bacb-1802-4391-aed1-d46766ead617/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/df20bacb-1802-4391-aed1-d46766ead617/content

IMG12754.jpg

Afghanistan

<div style="text-align: justify;">The minaret of Bahram Shah is one of two monumental towers at Ghazni. It is located to the northeast of the modern city, in a ruin field that also contains a number of Ghaznavid tombs and palaces. An inscription on the minaret states that Bahram Shah, a Ghaznivid ruler who reigned from 1117-1153/511-547 AH, ordered its construction.&nbsp;</div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;">The tower as it stands today only represents part of the original construction. The conical tin roof is a modern addition and shaft in the form of an eight-point star would have been the base for a second, likely cylindrical shaft, doubling the minaret's height. The facade of the remaining portion of the shaft is divided into rectangular fields featuring brickwork arranged in zig-zag patterns. At the top is a wide inscription in monumental Kufic script set within a wide band.&nbsp;</div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: left;">Sources:&nbsp;</div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div style="text-align: left;">Ball, Warwick. Archaeological Gazetteer of Afghanistan. Revised Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.</div><div class="csl-bib-body" style="line-height: 1.35; margin-left: 2em; text-indent:-2em;">
 
 <span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzotero.org%3A2&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Archaeological%20Gazetteer%20of%20Afghanistan&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.publisher=Oxford%20University%20Press&amp;rft.edition=Revised%20Edition&amp;rft.aufirst=Warwick&amp;rft.aulast=Ball&amp;rft.au=Warwick%20Ball&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft.language=English"></div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div style="text-align: left;">Sourdel-Thomine, Janine. “Deux minarets d’époque seljoukide en Afghanistan.” Syria 30, no. 1–2 (1953): 108–36.</div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div class="csl-bib-body" style="line-height: 1.35; margin-left: 2em; text-indent:-2em;">
 
 <span class="Z3988" title="url_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzotero.org%3A2&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Deux%20minarets%20d%E2%80%99%C3%A9poque%20seljoukide%20en%20Afghanistan&amp;rft.jtitle=Syria&amp;rft.volume=30&amp;rft.issue=1-2&amp;rft.aufirst=Janine&amp;rft.aulast=Sourdel-Thomine&amp;rft.au=Janine%20Sourdel-Thomine&amp;rft.date=1953&amp;rft.pages=108-136&amp;rft.spage=108&amp;rft.epage=136&amp;rft.language=French"></div><div style="text-align: left;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div>

Import

Josephine Powell

Ghazni Province (Powell Collection)

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/85444716-a013-495e-bd5b-2f4bff29bff1/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/85444716-a013-495e-bd5b-2f4bff29bff1/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/85444716-a013-495e-bd5b-2f4bff29bff1/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/85444716-a013-495e-bd5b-2f4bff29bff1/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/85444716-a013-495e-bd5b-2f4bff29bff1/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/85444716-a013-495e-bd5b-2f4bff29bff1/content

2.5 x 2.5 in color transparency

General view. Minarets of Bahram Shah and Mas'ud III. Ghazni. Afghanistan.

Manar-i Bahram Shah

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/746277f8-3271-4010-b3d9-85db62e2f324/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/746277f8-3271-4010-b3d9-85db62e2f324/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/746277f8-3271-4010-b3d9-85db62e2f324/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/746277f8-3271-4010-b3d9-85db62e2f324/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/746277f8-3271-4010-b3d9-85db62e2f324/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/746277f8-3271-4010-b3d9-85db62e2f324/content

B & W print

IMG10847

Manar-i Mas'ud III

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c005204c-a184-4a2b-b675-51640dcf35c9/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c005204c-a184-4a2b-b675-51640dcf35c9/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c005204c-a184-4a2b-b675-51640dcf35c9/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c005204c-a184-4a2b-b675-51640dcf35c9/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c005204c-a184-4a2b-b675-51640dcf35c9/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c005204c-a184-4a2b-b675-51640dcf35c9/content

2.5 x 2.5 in b & w negative

General view. Minaret of Bahram Shah. Ghazni. Afghanistan.

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e97e8b1f-55e8-4d44-b1ba-3eb4f285e3a9/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e97e8b1f-55e8-4d44-b1ba-3eb4f285e3a9/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e97e8b1f-55e8-4d44-b1ba-3eb4f285e3a9/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e97e8b1f-55e8-4d44-b1ba-3eb4f285e3a9/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e97e8b1f-55e8-4d44-b1ba-3eb4f285e3a9/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e97e8b1f-55e8-4d44-b1ba-3eb4f285e3a9/content

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/26eb42e9-ed36-46f6-b97d-80fc7b662364/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/26eb42e9-ed36-46f6-b97d-80fc7b662364/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/26eb42e9-ed36-46f6-b97d-80fc7b662364/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/26eb42e9-ed36-46f6-b97d-80fc7b662364/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/26eb42e9-ed36-46f6-b97d-80fc7b662364/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/26eb42e9-ed36-46f6-b97d-80fc7b662364/content

Byron's Iran and Afghanistan

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/42bf6434-2f01-423b-801d-dccb17aa24a9/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/42bf6434-2f01-423b-801d-dccb17aa24a9/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/42bf6434-2f01-423b-801d-dccb17aa24a9/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/42bf6434-2f01-423b-801d-dccb17aa24a9/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/42bf6434-2f01-423b-801d-dccb17aa24a9/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/42bf6434-2f01-423b-801d-dccb17aa24a9/content

IMG08865

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/45238b1b-9e8e-4b21-8665-25bcc057c911/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/45238b1b-9e8e-4b21-8665-25bcc057c911/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/45238b1b-9e8e-4b21-8665-25bcc057c911/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/45238b1b-9e8e-4b21-8665-25bcc057c911/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/45238b1b-9e8e-4b21-8665-25bcc057c911/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/45238b1b-9e8e-4b21-8665-25bcc057c911/content

IMG12745

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/9413f849-8554-4935-9c05-f7ba77ce9e99/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/9413f849-8554-4935-9c05-f7ba77ce9e99/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/9413f849-8554-4935-9c05-f7ba77ce9e99/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/9413f849-8554-4935-9c05-f7ba77ce9e99/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/9413f849-8554-4935-9c05-f7ba77ce9e99/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/9413f849-8554-4935-9c05-f7ba77ce9e99/content

IMG08866

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e085c8a3-08df-44a8-8e75-975fa8dcb3da/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e085c8a3-08df-44a8-8e75-975fa8dcb3da/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e085c8a3-08df-44a8-8e75-975fa8dcb3da/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e085c8a3-08df-44a8-8e75-975fa8dcb3da/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e085c8a3-08df-44a8-8e75-975fa8dcb3da/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/e085c8a3-08df-44a8-8e75-975fa8dcb3da/content

Upper half. Minaret of Bahram Shah. Ghazni. Afghanistan.

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c9a71848-dac2-49f9-a40b-a22d3fde991c/download

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c9a71848-dac2-49f9-a40b-a22d3fde991c/iiif

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c9a71848-dac2-49f9-a40b-a22d3fde991c/inline

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c9a71848-dac2-49f9-a40b-a22d3fde991c/preview

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c9a71848-dac2-49f9-a40b-a22d3fde991c/thumbnail

https://archnet-3-prod-iiif-cloud-c0fe51f0b9ac.herokuapp.com/public/resources/c9a71848-dac2-49f9-a40b-a22d3fde991c/content

منار بهرام شاه

Original

Transliterated

Manar-e Bahram Shah

Alternate transliteration

Bahram Shah Minaret

Translated

Minaret of Bahramshah

د بهرام شاه منار

Da Bahram Shah Manar

Bahram Shah Manar

See <a href="https://www.archnet.org/collections/2360" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Timeline: Samanid</a> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;<a href="http://archnet.org/timelines/48/period/Samanid/year/850" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Samanids</a>&nbsp;had controlled their eastern territories through the use of Turkic “slave” (gholam) forces, fierce fighters who were familiar with the tactics of other Turkic groups such as the Qarakhanids. As the power of the Samanids declined and the invasions of the Turkic invaders from Inner Asia increased, the Samanids came to rely on their Turkic generals to withstand these attacks. These Turkic “slave” commanders had taken over the control of Ghazna (in Afghanistan) and had become nominal vassals of the Samanids; they called themselves Ghaznavids (977-1186/366-582 AH ). So highly were these “slave” generals thought of that Sebuktegin of Ghazna (977-997/366-87 AH ) was given the title of “most noble commander.”[1] Upon Sebuktegin’s death, his two sons Mahmud and Ismail fought over the control of Ghazna with Mahmud the winner, and within a year, he had established control over all the former Samanid lands south of the Oxus River (including Khurasan and Afghanistan). With his legitimacy certified by the Abbasid al-Qadir (991-1031/381-422 AH) with such honorific titles as Yamin al-Dawla (Right Hand of the State)[2], Mahmud (998-1030/ 388-421AH), careful to keep the caliph informed of his conquests and to await orders “before proceeding any further in his ‘cleansing’ of Khurasan,”[3] built up a huge military and turned his attention to the plains of India. Having conquered as far southeast as the state of Gujerat (the peninsula of Kathiawar) in 1024/415 AH, sending back immense treasure, he left his conquered lands as tributaries and turned his attention to the west, conquering Rayy,&nbsp;<a href="http://archnet.org/authorities/3689" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Hamadan</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="http://archnet.org/authorities/3709" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Isfahan</a>&nbsp;(1027-1029/418-20 AH ) from the Buyids. Not since the peak of Abbasid extension had the Islamic world seen such an empire.Mahmud’s son Mas’ud I (1030-1041/421-432 AH) continued his father’s conquests, attacking Delhi (1037/428&nbsp;AH), conquering the province of Kerman (1033 /424/ AH), but losing it next year to the&nbsp;<a href="http://archnet.org/timelines/48/period/Buyid/year/932" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Buyids</a>, and by 1034/ 425 AH&nbsp;his inability and over-taxation of the people to support his military led to the loss of Khwarazm.&nbsp;By 1036-1037/427-428 AH&nbsp;&nbsp;he had lost the cities of Merv, Rayy, and Nishapur to the Turkic Oghuz (Turkmen), led by the Seljuq Turks, who had also been mercenaries for the Samanids as well as the Qarakhanids. Mas’ud realized that he could no longer defend his former western territories so his moved his capital and court to Lahore, but was assassinated by his troops on the way.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mahmud’s successors did their best to hold on to the grand empire.&nbsp;His grandson Ibrahim (1059-1099 /451-492 AH) found it better to make peace with the&nbsp;<a href="http://archnet.org/timelines/48/period/Seljuk%20of%20Rum%20(Anatolia)/year/1091" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Seljuqs</a>&nbsp;through treaties and marriage alliances.&nbsp;With relatively minor difficulties, Ibrahim’s forty-year reign brought stability and prosperity to the empire.&nbsp;Lore remained the capital of the eastern part of the Ghaznavid empire with Ghazna the western capital.&nbsp;All of this was lost by the increasing presence of the Seljuqs and an internal power struggle within the Ghaznavid court (1115-1117/508-511 AH).&nbsp;Under Bramsh[4] (1117-1157 /511-552 AH) for the first time since the overthrow of the Samanids, the Ghaznavids were now tributes of another power, the Seljuqs.&nbsp;By 1150-1151/545 AH with the increasing power of the Afghani Ghurids, the city of Ghazna was sacked and Bahramshah fled to India, only returning when the Seljuqs pushed back the Ghurids.&nbsp;By the reign of Bahramshah’s grandson Khusro Malek (1160-1186/555-82 AH), the capital was shifted to Lore by order of the Seljuqs.&nbsp;By 1186/582 AH, the last Ghaznavid ruler found himself besieged in his capital by the Ghurids, forced to surrender, and then executed.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Ghaznavids ruled for almost 210 years.&nbsp;At the empire’s height, the city of Ghazna became one of the foremost capitals of the Islamic world.&nbsp;Growing from a small town along the east-west trade routes, using the treasures of the Indian conquests, Ghazna came to be known for its gardens, palaces, great mosques, and an educated and celebrated court filled with scholars and artists.&nbsp;Although the Ghaznavids were Turks, they spoke New Persian, celebrated festivals such as No-Ruz (Persian New Year) and Mihragan (the first day of fall), and promoted literature and philosophy in Farsi/Dari.&nbsp;Yet there was an Indian presence as well because of the Ghaznavid conquests.&nbsp;Numerous Indian craftsmen were brought to Ghazna and used particularly as stone and woodcarvers. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;As with the Samanids, the Ghaznavids were Sunni (Hanafi) but active communities of Shafi’i, Ash’ariyya, Imami (Jafari or Twelver) Shi’a, Ismaili Shi’a, and Sufis also existed; at times, however, the latter three were harshly treated.[5]&nbsp;Madrasas for the study of Hanafi and Shafi’i were established in Nishapur under Mahmud’s brother Nasr, and other madrasas were set up in cities such as Merv and Sarakhs.&nbsp;Scholars such as Abu Hamid Mohammad al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058-1111/449-555 AH), a great jurist, theologian, and Sufi mystic who left a deep influence on medieval, Western Judaism and Christianity created a balance between religion and reason in works such as Ihya al-‘Ulum al-Islamia, (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) and Tuhafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers).&nbsp;Works of history by scholars such as Abu Sa’id ‘Abd al-Hayy Gardizi (ca. 1059/556 AH), who wrote Zayn al-Akhbar (Ornament of Histories, on the ancient kings of Iran before the Arab invasion, the Abbasid caliphs, various rulers of the eastern provinces, the end of the Samanids and the origins of the Ghaznavids), and Abu Nasr Mohammad al’Utbi who wrote al-Ta’rikh al-Yamini (The History of the Yamin, ca. 1020/411AH, referring to Yamin al-Dawla, a history of Sebuktegin and Mahmud’s reigns).&nbsp;These works are more than a recording of historical events but a picture of the organization and administrative personnel of the Ghaznavid empire. A Persian history by Zayd b. ‘Ali Bayhaqi, called Ibn Funduq (d. 1170/461 AH), Tarikh-i Bayhaq (The History of Bayhaq) includes both contemporary events that surround the town of Bayhaq (near Nishapur) and an early history of Sayyid families (descended from the Shi’a imams) in the town. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;‘Umar Khayyam (1048-1131/439-575 AH) from Nishapur was a major mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and poet, whose Rubaiyyat (Quatrains) overshadows his other achievements in science because of Edward FitzGerald’s nineteenth-century English translation: "With Earth's first Clay They did the Last Man knead, And there of the Last Harvest sow'd the Seed:&nbsp;And the first Morning of Creation wrote What the Last Dawn of Reckoning shall read."[6]&nbsp;Abu’l Fath’h al-Khazini from Merv completed his influential work Kitab Mizan al-Hikma (Book of the Balance of Wisdom) in 1121/515 AH on the science of weighing and taking measurements.&nbsp;mad b. ‘Umar b. ‘Ali, known as Nizami ‘Arudi Samarqandi (d. 1157/552 AH), a native of Samarkand, was a scientist, poet, philosopher and physician.&nbsp;His Majmu al-Nawadir (Collection of Strange and Curious Things) contains remarks on the structure and function of living organisms, and accounts of medicine and even the outputs of mines. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From Balkh came the great philosopher, traveller, and poet Nasir-i Khusro (1004-1072-73?/ 394-465? AH) whose works written in Persian, especially the Safar-nama and the Diwan of poems, provide details of his growing up at the Ghaznavid court, his travels through Iran to Syria and Palestine, and his conversion to Isma’ili Shi’a in Egypt.&nbsp;A work in Arabic that describes the linguistic distribution of Turkish tribes was compiled by Mahmud al-Kashghari, written between 1072-1074/463-465 AH, Diwan Lughat Al-Turk (Compendium of the Turkic Dialects).&nbsp;This work even included for the first time a map of the Turkish tribes and their languages with Kashghar in the center. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Of course, the most known literary work is the Shahnama (Book of Kings) by Ferdousi (d. 1020/ 411 AH) begun under the Samanids but completed and submitted to Mahmud of Ghazna.&nbsp;Legend has it that Mahmud was unimpressed and gave him three times less, and in silver, what he had originally promised.&nbsp;Ferdousi was so insulted that he distributed the coins to a bath attendant, a refreshment seller and the slave who carried the coins before he returned to his home in Tus, Khorasan.&nbsp;Mahmud later realized, or was informed, that he had insulted a great poet whose work had taken twenty years of the poet’s life.&nbsp;So he sent “camel loads of indigo to the value of 20,000 dinars” to Tus, but the great poet had died before they reached him.[7] &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;At the same time Mahmud was known for his patronage of poets and literature also supported by local princes and governors throughout the Ghaznavid territory.&nbsp;In Lore, later Ghaznavid poets prospered: Abu’l Faraj Runi (1039-1108/430-501 AH), whose surviving diwan comprises 2,000 bayts dedicated to the Ghaznavid sultans and other nobles at court written in an uncluttered lyrical style, and Mas’ud-i Sa’d-i Salman (1046-1121/437-514 AH), the first major Indo-Persian poet whose divan and other writings, in Persian, Arabic and Hindi, describe Ghaznavid expansion and political victories.&nbsp;Accused of attempting to join the rival Seljuq court, he was sent to prison for ten years, eventually pardoned by Mas’ud III, arrested again with another seven years in prison, pardoned once more, and given the position of royal librarian and court poet in Ghazna.[8] &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;More architectural monuments built under the Ghaznavids exist than those under the Samanids.&nbsp;Ghaznavid cities, now in ruins, show that they once contained numerous palaces, mosques, madrasas, bathhouses, gardens, and villas for the nobles at the court.&nbsp;These buildings were decorated with carved and painted stucco, geometric and vegetal ornamentation, sculptures and wall paintings, such as those found at Lashkar-i Bazar, Bust, Afghanistan.&nbsp;Tall minarets exist in the remains of Ghazna, one by Mas’ud III and the other by Bahramshah, which were probably associated with mosques that have disappeared.&nbsp;The palace of Mas’ud III in Ghazna was ornamented with frescoes, marble flooring, carved marble screens, paintings, stucco and terracotta motifs.&nbsp;The great mosque built by order of Mahmud was covered with carved and gilded marble.[9]&nbsp;Square domed tombs of brick survive at Bukhara, Merv, Sarakhs, and Mar Sharif in Afghanistan, and for the first time also hint at the introduction of the use of tiles, although tiles may have been used in the palaces in Ghazna as well. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;A lovely textile fragment made of mulham, a mixture of cotton and silk, includes a repeating design motif of printed pearl bordered-squares with printed and painted lions alternating with squares of undyed fabric.&nbsp;The attribution of this cloth to the Ghaznavid period is based on the similarity of the design to glazed ceramic tiles found in Ghazna.[10]&nbsp;Multi-colored textiles are depicted on mural fragments from Lashkar-i Bazar: bright red, green, dark blue with embroidery designs on the long belted tunics worn by images of guards, servants, and nobles.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Elaborate calligraphic scripts including what is described as Eastern Kufic because of its tall and angular letters were common for inscriptions on buildings and objects.&nbsp;Gold armlets, necklaces, earrings, pins, were exceptional for their filigree and granulation.[11]&nbsp;High tin bronze objects, preferred because of their similarity to silver, such as bowls, trays, and pitchers, were produced by hammering, chasing, punching and engraving.[12]&nbsp;Earthenware that was incised, engraved, and slipcovered with drippy glazes (splash ware) continued under the Ghaznavids and competed with the introduction of luster glazes, shards of which were found in Ghazna.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Because of the rivalry between the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, and the Seljuks, it is often difficult to assign specific works of art from the later years to the Ghaznavids.&nbsp;What little we do have, however, demonstrates the technical abilities, the sophisticated taste, and the finest materials used to produce works of art and architecture that speak to the glories of the Ghaznavids.&nbsp;Johanna Domela Movassat, Ph.D.&nbsp;Notes[1] C. E. Bosworth, “Ghaznavids,” Encyclopaedia Iranica (2012), http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghaznavids.&nbsp;Bosworth cites S. Flury, “Le décor épigraphique des monuments de Ghazna,” Syria 6 (1925), 62-63, who records Sebuktegin’s tomb inscription as al-hejeb al-ajall.[2] Bosworth, “Ghaznavids.”[3] Eric J. Hanne, Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate (Danvers, Massachusetts: Rosemont Publishing, 2007), 68.[4] The last three Ghaznavid rulers were named for great Sasanian kings:&nbsp;B/ramshah (Bahram + shah/king) from Bahram Chobin the supposed ancestor of the Samanids, Khusroshah (Khusro + shah/king) from Khusro I and II, two of the greatest Sasanian monarchs, and Khusro Malek (malek = king).&nbsp;[5] For a brief discussion of these communities under the Ghaznavids and Ghurids, see Anthony Welch, Hussein Keshani, and Alexandra Bain, “Epigraphs, Scripture, and Architecture in the Delhi Sultanate,” Muqarnas 19 (2002), 12-13.&nbsp;Bosworth, “Ghaznavids,” says that Mahmud regular promoted himself as an “enforcer of orthodoxy” against such groups as the Ismailis and Shi’ites.&nbsp;See also C.E. Bosworth, “Legal and Political Sciences in the Eastern Iranian World and Central Asia,” in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, edited by I. Iskender-Mochigi and Jana Gough (Paris: Unesco, 2000), 135-136.[6] Mehdi Aminrazavi and Glen Van Brummelen, "Umar Khayyam,"&nbsp;The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy&nbsp;(Fall 2011), Edward N. Zalta&nbsp;(ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2011/entries/umar-khayyam/.[7] See Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh, “Ferdowsi, ‘Abu’l-Qasem, i. Life,” Encyclopaedia Iranica (2012), http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ferdowsi-i.[8] See Sunil Sharma, “Mas’ud-e Sa’d-e Salman,” Encyclopaedia Iranica (2008),&nbsp;http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/masud-sad-salman.[9] See Martina Rugiadi, “The Ghaznavid Marble Architectural Decoration: An Overview,” Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2009), http://web.mit.edu/akpia/www/articlerugiadi.pdf.[10] See "Textile" possibly Ghaznavid, probably from Iran, from the Metropolitan Museum, New York, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/31.106.64.[11] See “Armlet” from the Ghaznvid period dated to the eleventh century from Gurgan, Iran, in the Metropolitan Museum, New York.&nbsp;The museum site suggests that the twisted decoration is borrowed from Greek bracelets and that the coins that were used as the base of the decorative bosses is a Byzantine style, http:// http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/masud-sad-salman.[12] See “Bowl,” Ghaznavid, Afghanistan, from the Metropolitan Museum, New York, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/2000.57.&nbsp;&nbsp;

Manar-i Bahram ShahGhazni, Afghanistan

Manar-i Bahram Shah
Ghazni, Afghanistan